Sufficiency consists of less materially intensive consumption patterns that focus on wellbeing rather than material wealth. Such consumption patterns are increasingly seen as a key driver for achieving decarbonization. However, the social stratification aspects of sufficiency lifestyles and its drivers remain largely under-studied.
Using a mixed-methods design, this article investigates whether a combination of low carbon footprint and high wellbeing exists, what socio-demographic characteristics are associated with it, and explores the actual experiences of people engaged in sufficiency-oriented initiatives. Quantitative analysis of representative survey data across Europe (N=5,080) reveals that sufficiency lifestyles are linked to a stronger inclination towards sufficiency orientation or a heightened environmental identity, accompanied by a negative correlation with social deprivation aspects.
The qualitative investigation of in-depth interviews (N=90) with participants from sufficiency-oriented initiatives uncovers that individuals engaged in these practices tend to benefit from economic, social, and cultural resources that allow them to overcome energy dependency and constraints. Their motivations extend beyond pro-environmental behavior, encompassing belonging to a community, accessing healthier options, and learning new skills.
Based on these empirical findings, the article explores potential avenues for the diffusion of sufficiency-oriented lifestyles, including the establishment of binding rules through a democratic process that curb overconsumption while providing attractive low-carbon lifestyles for all. Policies must have the capacity to succeed in establishing a low-carbon, high wellbeing lifestyle as the standard and accessible choice, preventing energy poverty, enhancing social inclusion, and avoiding prejudices.
Sufficiency: Concepts and Measurement
Sufficiency is defined as a voluntary reduction in resource consumption that maintains quality of life while staying within the planet’s boundaries (Alcott, 2008; Creutzig et al., 2022). It is often described as a lifestyle shift towards less carbon-intensive daily practices (Baumgartner et al., 2022). Sufficiency is increasingly seen as a crucial driver for decarbonization pathways, as households account for 60-70% of global greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Ivanova et al., 2016; Dubois et al., 2019).
Sufficiency is differentiated from efficiency (reducing environmental impact at a given level of consumption) and consistency (using less harmful resources) (Samadi et al., 2017). Efficiency and consistency alone are unlikely to provide the massive changes required to meet the Paris Agreement targets, as they can generate rebound effects and involve technologies that need time to mature (Sorrell et al., 2020; Dütschke et al., 2021).
While there is a growing consensus on the necessity of integrating sufficiency to achieve the EU’s climate objectives (Faber et al., 2012; Samadi et al., 2017), sufficiency remains largely absent from the EU’s policy frameworks, which have historically emphasized efficiency and renewable energy.
Social Impacts of Sufficiency
The social stratification aspects of sufficiency lifestyles, however, remain largely under-studied. Lower carbon footprint emissions are associated with lower income (Büchs and Schnepf, 2013; Duarte et al., 2021), while pro-environmental purchase behavior is associated with higher social status (Carfagna et al., 2014; Moser and Kleinhückelkotten, 2018). This raises the challenge of distinguishing economic wellbeing from wellbeing in a more holistic sense.
Our research aims to address this gap by investigating the socioeconomic, cultural, normative, and behavioral dimensions of sufficiency, using both quantitative and qualitative methods to uncover its relationships with wellbeing. We provide insights on relevant characteristics, social as well as societal structures, drivers, and barriers to sufficiency-oriented lifestyles.
Mixed-Methods Methodology
We employed a complementary mixed-methods design, using quantitative analysis to examine variables associated with sufficiency lifestyles, and qualitative research to understand the adoption processes, motivations, and benefits of sufficiency-oriented practices.
The quantitative approach involved an online survey in Denmark, Germany, Italy, and Latvia (N=5,080), categorizing respondents into sufficiency lifestyle groups based on their carbon footprint and wellbeing measures. We then used multinomial regression models to identify factors associated with these groups.
The qualitative investigation entailed 90 semi-structured interviews across five European countries, exploring various sufficiency-oriented initiatives and practices. Participants were selected to be diverse in terms of location, age, and gender.
Quantitative Findings: Sufficiency Lifestyles and Their Characteristics
The quantitative analysis reveals that people identified as living a very sufficient (Group I) or sufficient (Group II) lifestyle show corresponding attitudes, such as a higher sufficiency orientation and environmental identity. Crucially, these groups do not exhibit signs of deprivation, differentiating them from the low carbon footprint, low wellbeing group (Group III).
Factors associated with the sufficient groups (I and II) include living in an urban area, being older, and having a higher income. In contrast, the low wellbeing group (III) is more likely to have a lower income, be unemployed, and be a tenant.
Qualitative Insights: Motivations and Experiences of Sufficiency
The qualitative investigation uncovers that the motivations driving individuals to engage in sufficiency-oriented practices extend beyond pro-environmental behavior. Participants highlight the desire to belong to a community, access healthier options, and learn new skills, all of which positively impact their wellbeing and quality of life.
Individuals engaged in sufficiency initiatives tend to benefit from economic, social, and cultural resources that allow them to overcome energy dependency and constraints. However, these resources are not always financial, as some participants choose to work less or dedicate more time to volunteering activities, embracing a “slow life.”
Homeownership and the availability of indirect sources of income, such as savings, emerge as crucial enablers for accessing and participating in sufficiency-oriented initiatives, which often require significant upfront investments (e.g., renewable energy equipment, renovation work).
Implications for Policymakers
The research findings suggest that the diffusion of sufficiency-oriented lifestyles requires a comprehensive and multifaceted policy approach. First, the importance of sufficiency-oriented societal changes needs to be officially recognized by the EU, alongside energy efficiency and renewable energy, and systematically integrated into its climate scenarios, statistics, and wealth indicators.
Once sufficiency is established at the European level, member states can tailor sufficiency measures to incentivize low-carbon, sufficient behaviors while discouraging wasteful and carbon-intensive activities based on their country’s specific circumstances. This could include progressive pricing mechanisms, such as reduced VAT rates for sustainable goods and services, or progressive tariffs for water and electricity.
Crucially, policies must be designed in a socially just way to increase acceptance and protect the most vulnerable. Citizen assemblies have demonstrated a greater inclination to support sufficiency policies than many governments, suggesting the importance of a democratic approach that favors fairness and equity principles.
By facilitating frugal-yet-comfortable lifestyles, cities and buildings could play a critical role in establishing de facto limits to consumption, rendering a low-carbon and high wellbeing lifestyle accessible to all, without evoking a sense of deprivation.
Conclusion
Addressing the social dimensions and determinants of sufficiency is crucial for mainstreaming this approach within the EU’s policy framework. Our mixed-methods research provides valuable insights into the characteristics, motivations, and barriers associated with sufficiency-oriented lifestyles, informing the design of socially just policies that can foster sustainable consumption corridors and unlock the transformative potential of sufficiency.